Electric Motors

Electric Motors

 An Electric Motor Is An Electric Machine That Converts Electrical Energy Into Mechanical Energy.
In Normal Motoring Mode, Most Electric Motors Operate Through The Interaction Between An Electric Motor's Magnetic Field And Winding Currents To Generate Force Within The Motor. In Certain Applications, Such As In The Transportation Industry With Traction Motors, Electric Motors Can Operate In Both Motoring And Generating Or Braking Modes To Also Produce Electrical Energy From Mechanical Energy.
Found In Applications As Diverse As Industrial Fans, Blowers And Pumps, Machine Tools, Household Appliances, Power Tools, And Disk Drives, Electric Motors Can Be Powered By Direct Current (DC) Sources, Such As From Batteries, Motor Vehicles Or Rectifiers, Or By Alternating Current (AC) Sources, Such As From The Power Grid, Inverters Or Generators. Small Motors May Be Found In Electric Watches. General-Purpose Motors With Highly Standardized Dimensions And Characteristics Provide Convenient Mechanical Power For Industrial Use. The Largest Of Electric Motors Are Used For Ship Propulsion, Pipeline Compression And Pumped-Storage Applications With Ratings Reaching 100 Megawatts. Electric Motors May Be Classified By Electric Power Source Type, Internal Construction, Application, Type Of Motion Output, And So On.
Devices Such As Magnetic Solenoids And Loudspeakers That Convert Electricity Into Motion But Do Not Generate Usable Mechanical Power Are Respectively Referred To As Actuators And Transducers. Electric Motors Are Used To Produce Linear Force Or Torque (Rotary).

 

Early motors

Perhaps The First Electric Motors Were Simple Electrostatic Devices Created By The Scottish Monk Andrew Gordon In The 1740s.The Theoretical Principle Behind Production Of Mechanical Force By The Interactions Of An Electric Current And A Magnetic Field, Ampère's Force Law, Was Discovered Later By André-Marie Ampère In 1820. The Conversion Of Electrical Energy Into Mechanical Energy By Electromagnetic Means Was Demonstrated By The British Scientist Michael Faraday In 1821. A Free-Hanging Wire Was Dipped Into A Pool Of Mercury, On Which A Permanent Magnet (PM) Was Placed. When A Current Was Passed Through The Wire, The Wire Rotated Around The Magnet, Showing That The Current Gave Rise To A Close Circular Magnetic Field Around The Wire.This Motor Is Often Demonstrated In Physics Experiments, Brine Substituting For Toxic Mercury. Though Barlow's Wheel Was An Early Refinement To This Faraday Demonstration, These And Similar Homopolar Motors Were To Remain Unsuited To Practical Application Until Late In The Century.
Jedlik's "Electromagnetic Self-Rotor", 1827 (Museum Of Applied Arts, Budapest). The Historic Motor Still Works Perfectly Today.
In 1827, Hungarian Physicist Ányos Jedlik Started Experimenting With Electromagnetic Coils. After Jedlik Solved The Technical Problems Of The Continuous Rotation With The Invention Of Commutator, He Called His Early Devices As "Electromagnetic Self-Rotors". Although They Were Used Only For Instructional Purposes, In 1828 Jedlik Demonstrated The First Device To Contain The Three Main Components Of Practical DC Motors: The Stator, Rotor And Commutator. The Device Employed No Permanent Magnets, As The Magnetic Fields Of Both The Stationary And Revolving Components Were Produced Solely By The Currents Flowing Through Their Windings.

Success with DC motors

   

The First Commutator DC Electric Motor Capable Of Turning Machinery Was Invented By The British Scientist William Sturgeon In 1832. Following Sturgeon's Work, A Commutator-Type Direct-Current Electric Motor Made With The Intention Of Commercial Use Was Built By The American Inventor Thomas Davenport, Which He Patented In 1837. The Motors Ran At Up To 600 Revolutions Per Minute, And Powered Machine Tools And A Printing Press. Due To The High Cost Of Primary Battery Power, The Motors Were Commercially Unsuccessful And Davenport Went Bankrupt. Several Inventors Followed Sturgeon In The Development Of DC Motors But All Encountered The Same Battery Power Cost Issues. No Electricity Distribution Had Been Developed At The Time. Like Sturgeon's Motor, There Was No Practical Commercial Market For These Motors.
In 1855, Jedlik Built A Device Using Similar Principles To Those Used In His Electromagnetic Self-Rotors That Was Capable Of Useful Work. He Built A Model Electric Vehicle That Same Year.
The First Commercially Successful DC Motors Followed The Invention By Zénobe Gramme Who Had In 1871 Developed The Anchor Ring Dynamo Which Solved The Double-T Armature Pulsating DC Problem. In 1873, Gramme Found That This Dynamo Could Be Used As A Motor, Which He Demonstrated To Great Effect At Exhibitions In Vienna And Philadelphia By Connecting Two Such DC Motors At A Distance Of Up To 2 Km Away From Each Other, One As A Generator. (See Also 1873 : L'expérience Décisive [Decisive Workaround] .)
In 1886, Frank Julian Sprague Invented The First Practical DC Motor, A Non-Sparking Motor That Maintained Relatively Constant Speed Under Variable Loads. Other Sprague Electric Inventions About This Time Greatly Improved Grid Electric Distribution (Prior Work Done While Employed By Thomas Edison), Allowed Power From Electric Motors To Be Returned To The Electric Grid, Provided For Electric Distribution To Trolleys Via Overhead Wires And The Trolley Pole, And Provided Controls Systems For Electric Operations. This Allowed Sprague To Use Electric Motors To Invent The First Electric Trolley System In 1887–88 In Richmond VA, The Electric Elevator And Control System In 1892, And The Electric Subway With Independently Powered Centrally Controlled Cars, Which Were First Installed In 1892 In Chicago By The South Side Elevated Railway Where It Became Popularly Known As The "L". Sprague's Motor And Related Inventions Led To An Explosion Of Interest And Use In Electric Motors For Industry, While Almost Simultaneously Another Great Inventor Was Developing Its Primary Competitor, Which Would Become Much More Widespread. The Development Of Electric Motors Of Acceptable Efficiency Was Delayed For Several Decades By Failure To Recognize The Extreme Importance Of A Relatively Small Air Gap Between Rotor And Stator. Efficient Designs Have A Comparatively Small Air Gap. The St. Louis Motor, Long Used In Classrooms To Illustrate Motor Principles, Is Extremely Inefficient For The Same Reason, As Well As Appearing Nothing Like A Modern Motor.
Application Of Electric Motors Revolutionized Industry. Industrial Processes Were No Longer Limited By Power Transmission Using Line Shafts, Belts, Compressed Air Or Hydraulic Pressure. Instead Every Machine Could Be Equipped With Its Own Electric Motor, Providing Easy Control At The Point Of Use, And Improving Power Transmission Efficiency. Electric Motors Applied In Agriculture Eliminated Human And Animal Muscle Power From Such Tasks As Handling Grain Or Pumping Water. Household Uses Of Electric Motors Reduced Heavy Labor In The Home And Made Higher Standards Of Convenience, Comfort And Safety Possible. Today, Electric Motors Stand For More Than Half Of The Electric Energy Consumption In The US.

Read More

Investing

Investing                      

Investment has different meanings in finance and economics.
In economics, investment is the accumulation of newly produced physical entities, such as factories, machinery, houses, and goods inventories.

In finance, investment is putting money into an asset with the expectation of capital appreciation, dividends, and/or interest earnings. This may or may not be backed by research and analysis. Most or all forms of investment involve some form of risk, such as investment in equities, property, and even fixed interest securities which are subject, among other things, to inflation risk. It is indispensable for project investors to identify and manage the risks related to the investment.

In finance      

In finance, investment is the purchase of an asset or item with the hope that it will generate income or appreciate in the future and be sold at the higher price. It generally does not include deposits with a bank or similar institution. The term investment is usually used when referring to a long-term outlook. This is the opposite of trading or speculation, which are short-term practices involving a much higher degree of risk. Financial assets take many forms and can range from the ultra safe low return government bonds to much higher risk higher reward international stocks. A good investment strategy will diversify the portfolio according to the specified needs. The most famous and successful investor of all time isWarren Buffett. In March 2013 Forbes magazine had Warren Buffett ranked as number 2 in their Forbes 400 list. Buffett has advised in numerous articles and interviews that a good investment strategy is long term and choosing the right assets to invest in requires due diligence. Edward O. Thorp was a very successful hedge fund manager in the 1970s and 1980s that spoke of a similar approach. Another thing they both have in common is a similar approach to managing investment money. No matter how successful the fundamental pick is, without a proper money management strategy, full potential of the asset can’t be reached. Both investors have been shown to use principles from the Kelly criterion for money management.Numerous interactive calculators which use the kelly criterion can be found online.

In contrast, dollar (or pound etc.) cost averaging and market timing are phrases often used in marketing of collective investments and can be said to be associated with speculation.

Investments are often made indirectly through intermediaries, such as pension funds, banks, brokers, and insurance companies. These institutions may pool money received from a large number of individuals into funds such as investment trusts, unit trusts, SICAVs etc. to make large scale investments. Each individual investor then has an indirect or direct claim on the assets purchased, subject to charges levied by the intermediary, which may be large and varied. It generally, does not include deposits with a bank or similar institution. Investment usually involves diversification of assets in order to avoid unnecessary and unproductive risk.

Real estate investing  

Real estate investing involves the purchase, ownership, management, rental and/or sale of real estate for profit. Improvement of realty property as part of a real estate investmentstrategy is generally considered to be a sub-specialty of real estate investing called real estate development. Real estate is an asset form with limited liquidity relative to other investments, it is also capital intensive (although capital may be gained through mortgage leverage) and is highly cash flow dependent. If these factors are not well understood and managed by the investor, real estate becomes a risky investment. The primary cause of investment failure for real estate is that the investor goes into negative cash flow for a period of time that is not sustainable, often forcing them to resell the property at a loss or go into insolvency. A similar practice known as flipping is another reason for failure as the nature of the investment is often associated with short term profit with less effort.

Read More

Software

Software     

Computer Software, Or Just Software, Is Any Set Of Machine-Readable Instructions That Directs A Computer's Processor To Perform Specific Operations. The Term Is Used To Contrast With Computer Hardware, The Physical Objects (Processor And Related Devices) That Carry Out The Instructions. Computer Hardware And Software Require Each Other And Neither Can Be Realistically Used Without The Other.
Software Is A General Term. It Can Refer To All Computer Instructions In General, Or To Any Specific Set Of Computer Instructions. It Is Inclusive Of Both Machine Instructions (The Binary Code That The Processor "Understands") And Source Code (More Human-Understandable Instructions That Must Be Rendered Into Machine Code By Compilers Or Interpreters Before Being Executed).
Computer Software Is A Set Of Programs, Procedures, Functions, Associated Data And/Or Its Documentation, If Any. Program Software Performs The Function Of The Program It Implements, Either By Directly Providing Instructions To The Digital Electronics Or By Serving As An Input To Another Piece Of Software. Software Is Also Sometimes Used In A More Narrow Sense, Meaning Application Software Only.
Computer Software Is So Called To Distinguish It From Computer Hardware, Which Encompasses The Physical Devices And Interconnections Required To Store And Run ("Execute") The Software. In Contrast To Hardware, Executable Software Exists As Data In The Computer System And Hence "Cannot Be Touched", Just As The 3D Model Shown In The Illustration Cannot Be Touched.  At The Lowest Level, Executable Code Consists Of Machine Language Instructions Specific To An Individual Processor. A Machine Language Consists Of Groups Of Binary Values Signifying Processor Instructions That Change The State Of The Computer From Its Preceding State. For Example, An Instruction May Change The Value Stored In A Particular Storage Location Inside The Computer (An Effect That Is Not Directly Observable To The User), Or (Indirectly) Cause Something To Appear On A Display Of The Computer System (A State Change Which Should Be Visible To The User). The Processor Carries Out The Instructions In The Order They Are Provided, Unless It Is Instructed To "Jump" To A Different Instruction, Or Interrupted.

Software Is Usually Written In High-Level Programming Languages That Are Easier And More Efficient For Humans To Use (Closer To Natural Language) Than Machine Language. High-Level Languages Are Compiled Or Interpreted Into Machine Language Object Code. Software May Also Be Written In An Assembly Language, Essentially, A Mnemonic Representation Of A Machine Language Using A Natural Language Alphabet. Assembly Language Must Be Assembled Into Object Code Via An Assembler.

Facebook Advertising Software Video Tutorial 

Types of software 

Software Encompasses A Wide Array Of Products That May Be Developed Using Different Techniques Such As Ordinary Programming Languages, Microcode, Or An FPGA Configuration.
On Virtually All Computer Platforms, Software Can Be Grouped Into A Few Broad Categories:
• System Software Is Computer Software Designed To Operate The Computer Hardware, To Provide Basic Functionality, And To Provide A Platform For Running Application Software.  System Software Includes Device Drivers, Operating Systems, Servers, Utilities, And Window Systems.
• System Software Also Includes The Boot Firmware, Which Loads (Or In Some Cases Constitutes) The Operating System. Firmware Is Software That Has Been Permanently Stored In Hardware (Specifically, In Non-Volatile Memory). Thus, It Has Qualities Of Both Software And Hardware, But It Is Still Software.
• Application Software And Scripts Were Historically Defined As All The Software That Uses The Computer System To Perform Useful Work (Or Entertainment Functions) Beyond The Basic Operation Of The Computer Itself. However, In Practice The Distinction Between System Software And Application Software Is Often Blurred Due To Bundling Of Useful Applications With The Operating System.
• Application Software Includes Desktop Applications Such As Web Browsers And Microsoft Office, As Well As Smartphone And Tabletapplications (Called "Apps").
• Javascript Scripts Are Pieces Of Software Traditionally Embedded In Web Pages That Are Run Directly Inside The Web Browser When A Web Page Is Loaded, Without The Need For A Web Browser Plugin. Software Written In Other Programming Languages Can Also Be Run Within The Web Browser If The Software Is Either Translated Into Javascript, Or If A Web Browser Plugin That Supports That Language Is Installed; The Most Common Example Of The Latter Is Actionscript Scripts, Which Are Supported By The Adobe Flash Plugin.
• Web Applications Usually Run On The Web Server And Output Dynamically-Generated Web Pages To Web Browsers, Using E.G. PHP,Java Or ASP.NET, Or Even Javascript That Runs On The Server; In Modern Times They Commonly Include Some Javascript To Be Run In The Web Browser As Well, In Which Case They Typically Run Partly On The Server, Partly In The Web Browser.
• Plugins And Extensions Are Software That Extends Or Modifies The Functionality Of Another Piece Of Software, And Require That Software Be Used In Order To Function;
• Embedded Software Resides As Firmware Within Embedded Systems, Devices Dedicated To A Single Use Or A Few Uses Such As Cars And Televisions (Although Some Embedded Devices Such As Wireless Chipsets Can Themselves Be Part Of An Ordinary, Non-Embedded Computer System Such As A PC Or Smartphone).  In The Embedded System Context There Is Sometimes No Clear Distinction Between The System Software And The Application Software. However, Some Embedded Systems Run Embedded Operating Systems, And These Systems Do Retain The Distinction Between System Software And Application Software (Although Typically There Will Only Be One, Fixed, Application Which Is Always Ran).

• Microcode Is A Special, Relatively Obscure Type Of Embedded Software Which Tells The Processor Itself How To Execute Machine Code, So It Is Actually A Lower Level Than Machine Code  It Is Typically Proprietary To The Processor Manufacturer, And Any Necessary Correctional Microcode Software Updates Are Supplied By Them To Users (Which Is Much Cheaper Than Shipping Replacement Processor Hardware). Thus An Ordinary Programmer Would Not Expect To Ever Have To Deal With It.

Read More

Forex

Forex     

The Forex Exchange Market (Forex, FX, Or Currency Market) Is A Global Decentralized Market For The Trading Ofcurrencies. The Main Participants In This Market Are The Larger International Banks. Financial Centers Around The World Function As Anchors Of Trading Between A Wide Range Of Different Types Of Buyers And Sellers Around The Clock, With The Exception Of Weekends. EBS And Reuters' Dealing 3000 Are Two Main Interbank FX Trading Platforms. The Foreign Exchange Market Determines The Relative Values Of Different Currencies.
The Foreign Exchange Market Works Through Financial Institutions, And It Operates On Several Levels. Behind The Scenes Banks Turn To A Smaller Number Of Financial Firms Known As “Dealers,” Who Are Actively Involved In Large Quantities Of Foreign Exchange Trading.  Most Foreign Exchange Dealers Are Banks, So This Behind-The-Scenes Market Is Sometimes Called The “Interbank Market,”Although A Few Insurance Companies And Other Kinds Of Financial Firms Are Involved. Trades Between Foreign Exchange Dealers Can Be Very Large, Involving Hundreds Of Millions Of Dollars. Because Of The Sovereignty Issue When Involving Two Currencies, Forex Has Little (If Any) Supervisory Entity Regulating Its Actions.
The Foreign Exchange Market Assists International Trade And Investment By Enabling Currency Conversion. For Example, It Permits A Business In The United States To Import Goods From The European Union Member States, Especially Eurozonemembers, And Pay Euros, Even Though Its Income Is In United States Dollars. It Also Supports Direct Speculation In The Value Of Currencies, And The Carry Trade, Speculation Based On The Interest Rate Differential Between Two Currencies.
In A Typical Foreign Exchange Transaction, A Party Purchases Some Quantity Of One Currency By Paying Some Quantity Of Another Currency. The Modern Foreign Exchange Market Began Forming During The 1970s After Three Decades Of Government Restrictions On Foreign Exchange Transactions (The Bretton Woods System Of Monetary Management Established The Rules For Commercial And Financial Relations Among The World's Major Industrial States After World War II), When Countries Gradually Switched To Floating Exchange Ratesfrom The Previous Exchange Rate Regime, Which Remained Fixed As Per The Bretton Woods System.
The Foreign Exchange Market Is Unique Because Of The Following Characteristics:
• Its Huge Trading Volume Representing The Largest Asset Class In The World Leading To High Liquidity;
• Its Geographical Dispersion;
• Its Continuous Operation: 24 Hours A Day Except Weekends, I.E., Trading From 20:15 GMT On Sunday Until 22:00 GMT Friday;
• The Variety Of Factors That Affect Exchange Rates;
• The Low Margins Of Relative Profit Compared With Other Markets Of Fixed Income; And
• The Use Of Leverage To Enhance Profit And Loss Margins And With Respect To Account Size.
As Such, It Has Been Referred To As The Market Closest To The Ideal Of Perfect Competition, Notwithstanding Currency Intervention Bycentral Banks.
According To The Bank For International Settlements The Preliminary Global Results From The 2013 Triennial Central Bank Survey Of Foreign Exchange And OTC Derivatives Markets Activity Show That Trading In Foreign Exchange Markets Averaged $5.3 Trillion Per Day In April 2013. This Is Up From $4.0 Trillion In April 2010 And $3.3 Trillion In April 2007. FX Swaps Were The Most Actively Traded Instruments In April 2013, At $2.2 Trillion Per Day, Followed By Spot Trading At $2.0 Trillion.
According To The Bank For International Settlements,  As Of April 2010, Average Daily Turnover In Global Foreign Exchange Markets Is Estimated At $3.98 Trillion, A Growth Of Approximately 20% Over The $3.21 Trillion Daily Volume As Of April 2007. Some Firms Specializing On Foreign Exchange Market Had Put The Average Daily Turnover In Excess Of US$4 Trillion.
The $3.98 Trillion Break-Down Is As Follows:
• $1.490 Trillion In Spot Transactions
• $475 Billion In Outright Forwards
• $1.765 Trillion In Foreign Exchange Swaps
• $43 Billion Currency Swaps

• $207 Billion In Options And Other Products.

Forex Training Signals's

History

Currency Trading And Exchange First Occurred In Ancient Times.Money-Changing People, People Helping Others To Change Money And Also Taking A Commission Or Charging A Fee Were Living In The Times Of The Talmudic Writings (Biblical Times). These People (Sometimes Called "Kollybistẻs") Used City-Stalls, At Feast Times The Temples Court Of The Gentilesinstead.Money-Changers Were Also In More Recent Ancient Times Silver-Smiths And, Or, Gold-Smiths.

During The Fourth Century The Byzantium Government Kept A Monopoly On The Exchange Of Currency.

Market size and liquidity

The Foreign Exchange Market Is The Most Liquid Financial Market In The World. Traders Include Large Banks, Central Banks,Institutional Investors, Currency Speculators, Corporations, Governments, Other Financial Institutions, And Retail Investors. The Average Daily Turnover In The Global Foreign Exchange And Related Markets Is Continuously Growing. According To The 2010 Triennial Central Bank Survey, Coordinated By The Bank For International Settlements, Average Daily Turnover Was US$3.98 Trillion In April 2010 (Vs $1.7 Trillion In 1998). Of This $3.98 Trillion, $1.5 Trillion Was Spot Transactions And $2.5 Trillion Was Traded In Outright Forwards, Swaps And Other Derivatives.
In April 2010, Trading In The United Kingdom Accounted For 36.7% Of The Total, Making It By Far The Most Important Centre For Foreign Exchange Trading. Trading In The United States Accounted For 17.9% And Japan Accounted For 6.2%.
In April 2013, For The First Time, Singapore Surpassed Japan In Average Daily Foreign-Exchange Trading Volume With $383 Billion Per Day. So The Rank Became: The United Kingdom (41%), The United States (19%), Singapore (5.7)%, Japan (5.6%) And Hong Kong (4.1%).
Turnover Of Exchange-Traded Foreign Exchange Futures And Options Have Grown Rapidly In Recent Years, Reaching $166 Billion In April 2010 (Double The Turnover Recorded In April 2007). Exchange-Traded Currency Derivatives Represent 4% Of OTC Foreign Exchange Turnover. Foreign Exchange Futures Contracts Were Introduced In 1972 At The Chicago Mercantile Exchange And Are Actively Traded Relative To Most Other Futures Contracts.
Most Developed Countries Permit The Trading Of Derivative Products (Like Futures And Options On Futures) On Their Exchanges. All These Developed Countries Already Have Fully Convertible Capital Accounts. Some Governments Of Emerging Economies Do Not Allow Foreign Exchange Derivative Products On Their Exchanges Because They Have Capital Controls. The Use Of Derivatives Is Growing In Many Emerging Economies. Countries Such As Korea, South Africa, And India Have Established Currency Futures Exchanges, Despite Having Some Capital Controls.
Foreign Exchange Trading Increased By 20% Between April 2007 And April 2010 And Has More Than Doubled Since 2004.The Increase In Turnover Is Due To A Number Of Factors: The Growing Importance Of Foreign Exchange As An Asset Class, The Increased Trading Activity Of High-Frequency Traders, And The Emergence Of Retail Investors As An Important Market Segment. The Growth Of Electronic Execution And The Diverse Selection Of Execution Venues Has Lowered Transaction Costs, Increased Market Liquidity, And Attracted Greater Participation From Many Customer Types. In Particular, Electronic Trading Via Online Portals Has Made It Easier For Retail Traders To Trade In The Foreign Exchange Market. By 2010, Retail Trading Is Estimated To Account For Up To 10% Of Spot Turnover, Or $150 Billion Per Day (See Retail Foreign Exchange Platform).
Foreign Exchange Is An Over-The-Counter Market Where Brokers/Dealers Negotiate Directly With One Another, So There Is No Central Exchange Or Clearing House. The Biggest Geographic Trading Center Is The United Kingdom, Primarily London, Which According To Thecityuk Estimates Has Increased Its Share Of Global Turnover In Traditional Transactions From 34.6% In April 2007 To 36.7% In April 2010. Due To London's Dominance In The Market, A Particular Currency's Quoted Price Is Usually The London Market Price. For Instance, When The International Monetary Fund Calculates The Value Of Itsspecial Drawing Rights Every Day, They Use The London Market Prices At Noon That Day.

Central banks   

National Central Banks Play An Important Role In The Foreign Exchange Markets. They Try To Control The Money Supply, Inflation, And/Or Interest Ratesand Often Have Official Or Unofficial Target Rates For Their Currencies. They Can Use Their Often Substantial Foreign Exchange Reserves To Stabilize The Market. Nevertheless, The Effectiveness Of Central Bank "Stabilizing Speculation" Is Doubtful Because Central Banks Do Not Go Bankrupt If They Make Large Losses, Like Other Traders Would, And There Is No Convincing Evidence That They Do Make A Profit Trading.

Read More

Attorney

Attorney  

An Attorney At Law (Or Attorney-At-Law) In The United States Is A Practitioner In A Court Of Law Who Is Legally Qualified To Prosecute And Defend Actions In Such Court On The Retainer Of Clients. Alternative Terms Include Counselor (Or Counsellor-At-Law) And Lawyer. As Of April 2011, There Were 1,225,452 Licensed Attorneys In The United States.
The United States Legal System Does Not Draw A Distinction Between Lawyers Who Plead In Court And Those Who Do Not, Unlike Many Other Common Law Jurisdictions (Such As Those Of The United Kingdom Which Distinguishes Between Solicitors Who Do Not Plead In Court And The Barristers Of The English & Welsh System And Advocates Of The Scottish System Who Do Plead In Court), And Civil Law Jurisdictions (Such As Italy And France, Which Distinguish Between Advocates And Civil Law Notaries). An Additional Factor Which Differentiates The American Legal System From Other Countries Is That There Is No Delegation Of Routine Work To Notaries Public.
Attorneys May Use The Post-Nominal Letters Esq., The Abbreviated Form Of The Word Esquire.

Lake Oswego Elder Law Attorney Discusses

Practice of law   

Once Admitted To Practice By The Highest Court Of A State (The State Supreme Court), A Function Sometimes Administered By The State's Bar Association, An American Attorney May File Legal Pleadings And Argue Cases In That State Court, Provide Legal Advice To Clients And Draft Important Legal Instruments Such As Wills, Trusts, Deeds And Contracts.
Arguing Cases In The Federal Courts Requires Separate Admission.
In Some States, Real Estate Closings May Be Performed Only By Attorneys, Even Though The Attorney's Role In A Closing May Involve Primarily Notarization Of Documents And Disbursement Of Settlement Funds Through An Escrow Account.
Actions That May Be Performed By Lawyers Are Referred To As The Practice Of Law. Practicing Law Includes Interviewing A Client To Identify The Legal Question, Analyzing The Question, Researching Relevant Law, Devising Legal Solutions To Problems And Executing Such Solutions Through Specific Tasks Such As Drafting A Contract Or Filing A Motion With A Court.
Most Academic Legal Training Is Directed To Identifying Legal Issues, Researching Facts And Law As Well As Arguing Both The Facts And Law In Favor Of Either Side In Any Case.
For Several Years, Law Schools Have Sent Through Far More Students Than New Job Openings Have Become Available. This Leads To Attorneys (Once They Pass The Bar) Seeking Work In Other Occupations, Either By Choice Or By The Lack Of Employment Opportunities. This Has Led To A Market In Legal Temps Or Contract Attorneys, Where Attorneys Spend A Certain Period Of Time Working On Tasks Such As Discovery For A Case.

Specialization   

Many American Attorneys Limit Their Practices To Specialized Fields Of Law. Often Dichotomies Are Drawn Between Different Types Of Attorneys, But These Are Neither Fixed Nor Formal Lines. Examples Include:

•    Outside Counsel (Law Firms) V. In-House Counsel (Corporate Legal Department)

•    Plaintiff V. Defense Attorneys (Some Attorneys Do Both Plaintiff And Defense Work, Others Only Handle Certain Types Of Cases Like Personal Injury, Business Etc.)

•    Transactional (Or "Office Practice") Attorneys (Who Negotiate And Draft Documents And Advise Clients, Rarely Going To Court) V. Litigators (Who Advise Clients In The Context Of Legal Disputes Both In And Out Of Court, Including Lawsuits, Arbitrations And Negotiated Settlements)

•    Trial Attorneys (Who Argue The Facts, Such As The Late Johnnie Cochran) V. Appellate Attorneys (Who Argue The Law, Such As David Boies)

Despite These Descriptions, Some States Forbid Or Discourage Claims Of Specialization In Particular Areas Of Law Unless The Attorney Has Been Certified By His Or Her State Bar Or State Board Of Legal Specialization. Other States Allow Indirect Indications Of Specialization (In The Form Of Advertisement Language Such As "Our Practice Is Limited To . . ."), But Require That The Lawyer States That He Or She Is Not Certified By A State Board Of Legal Specialization In The Advertised Practice Area. Patent Attorneys Are Allowed To Advertise Their Specialization In All Jurisdictions, Since Registration For Patent Law Is Administered By The United States Patent And Trademark Office (USPTO) Instead Of A State-Level Body.

Some States Grant Formal Certifications Recognizing Specialties. In California, For Example, Bar Certification Is Offered In Family Law, Appellate Practice, Criminal Law, Bankruptcy, Estate Planning, Immigration, Taxation And Workers' Compensation. Any Attorney Meeting The Bar Requirements In One Of These Fields May Represent Himself As A Specialist. The State Bar Of Texas, For Example, Formally Grants Certification Of Specialization In 21 Select Areas Of Law.

 The Majority Of Lawyers Practicing In A Particular Field May Typically Not Be Certified As Specialists In That Field (And State Board Certification Is Not Generally Required To Practice Law In Any Field). For Example, The State Bar Of Texas (As Of Mid-2006) Reported 77,056 Persons Licensed As Attorneys In That State (Excluding Inactive Members Of The Bar), While The Texas Board Of Legal Specialization Reported, At About The Same Time, Only 8,303 Texas Attorneys Who Were Board Certified In Any Specialty. Indeed, Of The 8,303 Certified Specialists In Texas, The Highest Number Of Attorneys Certified In One Specific Field At That Time Was 1,775 (In Personal Injury Trial Law). Despite The Relative Large Number Of Lawyers That Presumably Would Handle Divorce, Adoption And Child Custody Matters, Texas Reported That Of 77,056 Attorneys, Only 697 In The Entire State Were Certified In Family Law (Which Is, Arguably, The Applicable Specialty).

Specialization In Patent Law Is Administered By The Office Of Enrollment And Discipline Of The USPTO, Which Imposes Stringent Requirements For Applicants To Become Registered As Patent Attorneys Or Patent Agents.

About Half Of American Attorneys Work Solo Or In Small Firms See Law Firm. There Are Also Many Mid-Size Firms, With Anywhere From 50 To 200 Attorneys And Since The 1970s, Some Law Firms Have Merged To Form Giant Firms With 1,000 Attorneys Or More.

However, Whether A Law Firm Is Large Or Small Is Also A Relative Concept Depending On The Size Of The Community Served. A Law Firm With Six Attorneys In A Small Community May Be Considered A Large Firm For That Area. Because Of Conflict Of Interest Rules, The Maximum Size Of A Law Firm Is Dependent Upon The Size Of The Population It Serves. Conflict Of Interest Rules Prevent One Attorney In A Law Firm From, For Example, Representing A Client In Litigation That Has An Adverse Interest To The Interests Of Another Client Represented By A Different Attorney In The Same Law Firm. A 2012 Survey Conducted By Lexisnexis Martindale-Hubbell Determined 58 Million Consumers In The U.S. Sought An Attorney In The Last Year And That 76 Percent Of Consumers Used The Internet To Search For An Attorney.

Law students in court  

 Some Courts Allow Law Students To Act As "Certified Student Attorneys" After The Satisfactory Completion Of Their First Year Of Law School And The Completion Of Particular Second- And Third-Year Courses With Subjects Such As Evidence. Many States Allow Students To Argue In Front Of A Court As A Certified Legal Intern (CLI), Provided They Meet Certain Prerequisites, Such As Having Completed At Least Half Of Their Law Education, Having Taken Or Be Taking The Law School's Ethics Class And Being Under The Supervision Of A Qualified And Licensed Attorney.

  This Concept Was Somewhat Misrepresented In The Movie Legally Blonde, Where The Protagonist Elle Argues Before A Jury. Although Elle Was Under The Supervision Of An Attorney, Massachusetts—Like Almost All Other States—Does Not Allow A First Year Law Student To Argue A Case In Court.
Additionally, Most States Have Rules Allowing Law Students In Their Third And Final Year To Practise On A Limited Basis While Under The Direct Supervision Of A Licensed Attorney. These Laws Vary From State To State. While Many States Are Very Strict, Some States Like Kansas And Illinois Provide Opportunities For Law Students To Argue Cases In Trials.

Read More

Advertising

Advertising

Advertising or advertizing is a form of communication for marketing and used to encourage, persuade, or manipulate an audience (viewers, readers or listeners; sometimes a specific group) to continue or take some new action. Most commonly, the desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising is also common. This type of work belongs to a category called affective labor.
In Latin, ad vertere means "to turn toward.The purpose of advertising may also be to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful. Advertising messages are usually paid for by sponsors and viewed via various traditional media; including mass media such as newspaper, magazines, television commercial, radio advertisement, outdoor advertising or direct mail; or new media such as blogs, websites or text messages.
Commercial advertisers often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "branding," which involves associating a product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of consumers. Non-commercial advertisers who spend money to advertise items other than a consumer product or service include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations and governmental agencies. Nonprofit organizations may rely on free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement (PSA).
Modern advertising was created with the innovative techniques introduced with tobacco advertising in the 1920s, most significantly with the campaigns of Edward Bernays, which is often considered the founder of modern, Madison Avenue advertising.
In 2010, spending on advertising was estimated at $142.5 billion in the United States and $467 billion worldwide .
Internationally, the largest ("big four") advertising conglomerates are Interpublic, Omnicom, Publicis, and WPP.

facebook ads tutorial

 

 

Public service advertising      

The advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as HIV/AIDS,political ideology, energy conservation and deforestation.

Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. "Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest – it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes." Attributed to Howard Gossage by David Ogilvy.

Public service advertising, non-commercial advertising, public interest advertising, cause marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.

In the United States, the granting of television and radio licenses by the FCC is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising. To meet these requirements, many broadcast stations in America air the bulk of their required public service announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching, leaving more day and prime time commercial slots available for high-paying advertisers.

Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of more than one government. During WWII President Roosevelt commissioned the creation of The War Advertising Council (now known as the Ad Council) which is the nation's largest developer of PSA campaigns on behalf of government agencies and non-profit organizations, including the longest-running PSA campaign.

Types of advertising  

Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards and forehead advertising, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any place an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.

Advertising education  

Advertising education has become widely popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.Organizations such as American Advertising Federation and AdU Network partner established companies with students to create these campaigns.

Read More